Glossary

A · B · C · D · E · F · G · H · I · J · K · L · M · N · O · P · Q · R · S · T · U · V · W · Y · Z

A

• Active recovery: Low-intensity exercise performed during rest periods to promote blood flow and aid recovery without adding significant training stress.
• Adaptive Thermogenesis: A metabolic adaptation where the body reduces energy expenditure beyond what would be predicted by changes in body mass, making further fat loss more difficult.
• Adherence: The degree to which a person follows dietary recommendations or maintains an eating pattern over time.
• Adipose tissue: Specialised connective tissue that stores energy in the form of fat and plays important roles in hormone production and metabolism regulation.
• Adrenalin: A hormone and neurotransmitter released during stress or exercise that increases heart rate, mobilises fat stores, and enhances energy availability.
• Aerobic exercise: Physical activity performed at moderate intensity that relies primarily on oxygen to meet energy demands and can be sustained for extended periods.
• Air Displacement Plethysmography: A body composition measurement technique that uses air displacement in a sealed chamber to determine body density and calculate body fat percentage.
• All-cause mortality: Death from any cause, used in research to measure overall survival and longevity across populations.
• Allicin: A sulphur compound formed when garlic is crushed or chopped, responsible for garlic's distinctive aroma and many of its health benefits, including antimicrobial and cardiovascular protective properties.
• Amenorrhea: The absence of menstrual periods in women, often caused by low energy availability or excessive exercise stress.
• Amino acids: The building blocks of protein that are essential for muscle protein synthesis and various metabolic functions in the body.
• Anabolic resistance: The reduced ability of muscle tissue to respond to anabolic stimuli like protein intake or resistance training, commonly seen with ageing.
• Anabolism: The metabolic process of building up complex molecules from simpler ones, including muscle protein synthesis and tissue growth.
• Androgen receptor: Cellular proteins that bind to hormones like testosterone to regulate muscle growth, strength development, and other physiological functions.
• Anorexigenic: Substances or signals that suppress appetite and reduce food intake.
• Antioxidant: Compounds that protect cells from damage caused by free radicals and oxidative stress, supporting overall health.
• Antioxidant capacity: The ability of foods or compounds to neutralise harmful free radicals and prevent oxidative damage to cells.
• Anthocyanins: Plant pigments responsible for red, purple, and blue colours in fruits and vegetables that have potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
• Anti-inflammatory: Substances or dietary patterns that reduce inflammation in the body, potentially lowering the risk of chronic diseases.
• Anti-nutritional Factors: Naturally occurring compounds in foods that can interfere with nutrient absorption or digestion, such as phytates, lectins, and oxalates.
• Appetite regulation: The complex hormonal and neurological mechanisms that control hunger, satiety, and food intake.
• Appetite: The psychological desire to eat that is influenced by sensory cues, emotions, and environmental factors, distinct from physiological hunger.
• Arterial occlusion pressure: The minimum pressure required to completely stop arterial blood flow, used as a reference point in blood flow restriction training.
• Asymmetry: Differences in strength, size, or function between corresponding body parts on opposite sides of the body.
• Atherosclerosis: The buildup of fatty plaques inside arteries that narrows vessels and can lead to heart attacks and strokes.
• ATP-PCR: The phosphocreatine energy system that provides immediate energy for high-intensity, short-duration activities lasting up to 10 seconds.
• Autophagy: The cellular process of breaking down and recycling damaged components, which can be enhanced by fasting and calorie restriction.
• Autoregulation: A training approach that adjusts workout variables based on daily readiness, fatigue levels, and performance capacity.
• Auxotonic contraction: A muscle contraction where both the length and tension of the muscle change throughout the range of motion.

B

• Bariatric surgery: Surgical procedures that modify the digestive system to promote significant weight loss in individuals with severe obesity.
• Beta oxidation: The metabolic pathway that breaks down fatty acids into acetyl-CoA to produce energy.
• Beta-carotene: Orange-red pigment found in peppers, tomatoes, and carrots that the body converts to vitamin A. Important for vision, immune function, and skin health.
• BIA: Bioelectrical impedance analysis, a method of estimating body composition by measuring the resistance to electrical current flow through the body.
• Bilateral deficit: The phenomenon where the combined force production of both limbs working together is less than the sum of each limb working independently.
• Bilateral exercise: Movements that involve both limbs working simultaneously, such as barbell squats or bench press.
• Binge Eating: Episodes of consuming large amounts of food in a short period, often accompanied by a sense of loss of control.
• Bioactive compounds: Naturally occurring chemicals in foods that have actions in the body that may promote health beyond basic nutrition.
• Bioactive peptides: Small protein fragments with biological activity that can influence various physiological processes and health outcomes.
• Bioavailability: The proportion of a nutrient or compound that is absorbed and available for use by the body after consumption.
• Biofeedback: The use of monitoring devices or techniques to provide real-time information about physiological processes to improve performance or recovery.
• Biological maturation: The process of physical development and growth that occurs naturally with age, independent of training or external factors.
• Biomarker: A measurable biological indicator used to assess physiological state, disease risk, or response to training interventions.
• Block programming: A periodisation method that focuses on developing specific training qualities in concentrated blocks of time.
• Blood flow restriction training: A training method that uses external pressure to partially restrict blood flow to working muscles during exercise.
• Blood pressure: The force of blood pushing against artery walls; elevated levels (hypertension) increase cardiovascular disease risk.
• Blue Zones: Global regions where people live longer, healthier lives by combining a healthy diet and lifestyle.
• BMI: Body Mass Index, a calculation using height and weight to provide a general indicator of body fatness and health risk categories.
• BMR: Basal metabolic rate, the minimum energy required to maintain basic physiological functions at complete rest.
• Body composition: The proportions of fat, muscle, bone, and water in the body are more informative than weight alone.
• Body recomposition: The simultaneous process of losing fat mass while gaining or maintaining lean muscle mass, resulting in improved body composition without necessarily changing total body weight.
• Bone mineral density: The amount of mineral content in bone tissue, which indicates bone strength and is influenced by diet, exercise, and hormonal factors.
• Bone tissue: The mineralised connective tissue that forms the skeleton and serves as attachment points for muscles and tendons.
• Brain atrophy: The loss of brain cells and connections between them, resulting in decreased brain volume, typically associated with ageing.
• Branched-chain amino acids: Three essential amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine) that play important roles in muscle protein synthesis and energy production.
• Brown adipose tissue: A specialised type of fat tissue that burns calories to generate heat, potentially aiding in energy expenditure and fat loss.

C

• Caloric deficit: The state where energy intake is lower than energy expenditure, which is the fundamental requirement for fat loss to occur.
• Caloric density: The number of calories in a given weight or volume of food; lower density allows larger portions.
• Calorie Restriction: A dietary approach that reduces energy intake below maintenance levels to create an energy deficit for fat loss.
• Cancer incidence: The number of new cancer cases diagnosed in a specific population during a defined time period.
• Capillary: The smallest blood vessels that facilitate the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste products between blood and tissues.
• Capsaicin: The Compound is responsible for the heat in chilli peppers. It has anti-inflammatory properties and may boost metabolism. Found in the dried peppers used in romesco and harissa.
• Carbohydrate cycling: A dietary strategy that alternates between high and low carbohydrate intake days to optimise fat loss while supporting training performance.
• Carbohydrate restriction: A dietary strategy that limits carbohydrate intake to varying degrees, from moderate reduction to very low ketogenic levels.
• Cardiac arrhythmia: An irregular heartbeat pattern that can be caused by overtraining, excessive stimulant use, or underlying heart conditions.
• Cardiometabolic: Combined health of the cardiovascular system and metabolic processes, including risk factors like blood pressure, cholesterol, and blood sugar.
• Cardiovascular: The heart and blood vessels, often used to describe diseases, health, or the effects of diet and exercise on this system.
• Cardiovascular disease: A group of conditions affecting the heart and blood vessels that can limit exercise capacity and overall health.
• Cardiovascular mortality: Death specifically from heart and blood vessel diseases, including heart attacks, stroke, and heart failure.
• Cargo cult science: Research or practices that appear scientific but lack rigorous methodology, often leading to misleading conclusions about diet and exercise.
• Carotenoids: Yellow, orange, and red plant pigments with antioxidant properties that support eye health and reduce disease risk.
• Casein protein: A slow-digesting dairy protein that provides a sustained release of amino acids over several hours.
• Catabolism: The metabolic processes that break down complex molecules into simpler ones to release energy, including the breakdown of stored fat and muscle.
• Catecholamines: A group of hormones including adrenaline and noradrenaline that mobilise fat stores and increase energy expenditure during stress or exercise.
• CCK: Cholecystokinin, a hormone released in response to food intake that promotes satiety and slows gastric emptying.
• Cheat meal: A planned meal that deviates from the usual dietary restrictions, intended to provide psychological relief and social flexibility during fat loss.
• Choline: Essential nutrient found in eggs, important for brain health, liver function, and metabolism. Eggs are one of the best dietary sources.
• Chronic inflammation: Persistent, low-level inflammation that damages tissues over time and underlies most age-related diseases.
• Chronological age: The actual age of an individual measured in years from birth, as opposed to biological or training age.
• Chronotype: An individual's natural preference for the timing of sleep and activity, which can influence meal timing and metabolism.
• Circadian rhythm: The internal biological clock that regulates sleep-wake cycles and various physiological processes over 24 hours.
• Cluster set: A training method that breaks a traditional set into smaller segments with brief rest periods between clusters.
• Cognitive function: Mental processes, including memory, attention, processing speed, and executive function, are used for thinking, learning, and decision-making.
• Cold water immersion: A recovery technique involving immersion in cold water to reduce inflammation and accelerate recovery after intense exercise.
• Collagen: The most abundant protein in connective tissues, providing structural support to tendons, ligaments, and muscle fascia.
• Complete amino acids: All nine essential amino acids that the body cannot produce and must obtain from dietary protein sources.
• Complete protein: A protein source that contains all nine essential amino acids in adequate proportions for human needs.
• Complex carbohydrates: Starches and fibres found in whole grains, legumes, and vegetables are digested slowly, providing sustained energy and stable blood sugar levels, unlike simple sugars.
• Compound exercise: Multi-joint movements that involve multiple muscle groups working together, such as squats, deadlifts, and pull-ups.
• Concentric contraction: A muscle contraction where the muscle shortens while generating force, such as the upward phase of a bicep curl.
• Connective tissue: Tissues that support and connect other body structures, including tendons, ligaments, and fascia.
• Continuous Energy Restriction: A dietary approach involving consistent daily calorie reduction over an extended period to achieve fat loss.
• Contrast hydrotherapy: An alternating hot and cold water treatment used to enhance recovery and reduce muscle soreness.
• Cool down: Low-intensity activities performed after exercise to gradually return the body to its resting state.
• Coordination: The ability to smoothly and efficiently integrate multiple movement patterns and muscle groups.
• Core stability: The ability of the trunk muscles to maintain proper spinal alignment and transfer force between the upper and lower body.
• Cortisol: A stress hormone that can increase appetite, promote fat storage (particularly abdominal fat), and affect metabolism when chronically elevated.
• Cravings: Intense, often overwhelming desires for specific foods that are typically driven by psychological, emotional, or physiological factors rather than true hunger.
• Creatine: A naturally occurring compound that helps regenerate ATP for high-intensity exercise and may enhance muscle growth.
• Cross-education: The phenomenon where training one limb can improve strength and performance in the untrained opposite limb.
• Cross-sectional area: The area of a muscle when viewed in cross-section, which correlates strongly with its force-producing capacity.
• Cryotherapy: The therapeutic use of cold temperatures to reduce inflammation, pain, and accelerate recovery.
• CT scan: Computed tomography imaging that can accurately measure muscle and fat tissue volumes and distribution.
• Cucina povera: Italian term meaning “peasant cooking” or “poor kitchen”. Philosophy of creating delicious meals from humble, inexpensive ingredients without waste.

D

• Deload: A planned reduction in training volume or intensity to allow for recovery and adaptation.
• Dementia: A syndrome of progressive decline in cognitive abilities severe enough to interfere with daily life and independence.
• DEXA: Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, a highly accurate method for measuring bone density and body composition.
• DIAAS: Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score, a method for evaluating protein quality based on amino acid digestibility.
• Dietary diversity: The variety of different foods consumed is particularly important for comprehensive nutrient intake and gut health.
• Dietary fibre: Indigestible carbohydrates that promote satiety, support digestive health, and may aid in weight management. Juicing removes it.
• Dietary restraint: The conscious restriction of food intake to control weight or health, which can be flexible or rigid.
• Digestibility: The extent to which consumed nutrients can be broken down and absorbed by the digestive system.
• Displacement Activity: Behaviours performed to avoid or substitute for eating, often used as a strategy to manage cravings and reduce calorie intake.
• DIT: Diet-induced thermogenesis, the energy expended to digest, absorb, and process nutrients from food.
• DOMS: Delayed onset muscle soreness, the pain and stiffness experienced 24-72 hours after intense or unfamiliar exercise.
• Dopamine: A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, and pleasure that influences eating behaviour and food cravings.
• Dose-response: The relationship between the amount of training stimulus and the magnitude of adaptation or response.
• Drop Set: A training technique where the weight is reduced after reaching failure to extend the set and increase training volume.
• Dynamic stretch: Stretching exercises that involve controlled movement through a range of motion to prepare muscles for activity.

E

• EAT: Exercise activity thermogenesis, the energy expended during planned physical activity and exercise sessions.
• Eating disorders: Serious mental health conditions characterised by persistent disturbances in eating behaviours, thoughts, and emotions that can have severe physical consequences.
• Eccentric contraction: A muscle contraction where the muscle lengthens while under tension, such as the lowering phase of a bicep curl.
• Eicosanoids: Signalling molecules derived from fatty acids that regulate inflammation, immune function, and various physiological processes throughout the body.
• Electrolyte imbalances: Abnormal levels of minerals like sodium, potassium, and magnesium in the body that can occur with extreme diets and affect heart rhythm, muscle function, and hydration.
• Emotional eating: The consumption of food in response to emotions such as stress, sadness, or boredom rather than physical hunger.
• Endocrine function: The regulation of hormones and their effects on growth, metabolism, and physiological processes.
• Endocrine-disruptors: Environmental chemicals that interfere with hormone function and may contribute to obesity and metabolic dysfunction.
• Endothelial function: The ability of blood vessel linings to dilate properly and regulate circulation, crucial for cardiovascular health.
• Energy availability: The amount of dietary energy remaining for physiological functions after accounting for exercise energy expenditure.
• Energy balance: The relationship between energy intake from food and total energy expenditure from all sources.
• Energy deficit: A state where energy expenditure exceeds energy intake, typically required for fat loss.
• Energy density: The number of calories per unit weight or volume of food, with lower energy density foods promoting satiety with fewer calories.
• Energy expenditure: The total amount of energy used by the body for all metabolic and physical activities.
• Energy intake: The total amount of energy consumed through food and beverages.
• Energy surplus: A state where energy intake exceeds energy expenditure, typically required for muscle growth.
• Epidemiological studies: Research examining patterns, causes, and effects of health conditions in defined populations.
• Epigenetics: Changes in gene expression that don't alter DNA sequence but can affect metabolism, appetite regulation, and obesity risk across generations.
• Essential amino acids: Nine amino acids that cannot be produced by the body and must be obtained through dietary sources.
• Essential fatty acid: Fatty acids that are necessary for health but cannot be synthesised by the body and must be consumed in the diet.
• Estrogen: A sex hormone that influences fat distribution, metabolism, and appetite, with levels declining during menopause, affecting body composition.
• Exercise: Planned, structured physical activity performed to improve or maintain physical fitness, health, and body composition.
• Extra virgin olive oil: The highest quality olive oil from first cold pressing without chemical processing, preserving maximum polyphenols and flavour.

F

• Fasting: A period of voluntary abstinence from food and caloric beverages, which can promote fat oxidation and metabolic changes.
• Fat adaptation: The metabolic adaptation where the body becomes more efficient at utilising fat as a primary fuel source, typically resulting from prolonged low-carbohydrate dieting or training.
• Fat distribution: The pattern of how body fat is stored across different areas of the body, influenced by genetics, hormones, and sex.
• Fat-free mass: The total body weight minus fat tissue, including muscle, bone, organs, and water.
• Fat metabolism: The biochemical processes involved in breaking down and utilising stored fat for energy.
• Fat mobilisation: The process of breaking down stored fat from adipose tissue and releasing fatty acids into the bloodstream for use as energy.
• Fat oxidation: The metabolic process of breaking down fatty acids to produce energy, which occurs during fasting, exercise, and low-carbohydrate states.
• Fat patterning: The characteristic way an individual stores body fat, which has implications for health risk and aesthetic concerns.
• Fat-soluble vitamins: Vitamins A, D, E, and K that are absorbed with dietary fat and can be stored in body tissues, requiring adequate fat intake for optimal absorption.
• Fat tissue: Adipose tissue that stores energy and provides insulation and protection for organs.
• Fatigue: The decline in muscle force-generating capacity or performance resulting from exercise or inadequate recovery.
• Flexible dieting: An approach to nutrition that focuses on meeting macronutrient and calorie targets while allowing food variety and flexibility in choices.
• FODMAP: Fermentable Oligosaccharides, Disaccharides, Monosaccharides, and Polyols, a group of short-chain carbohydrates that can trigger digestive symptoms in sensitive individuals.
• Food literacy: Knowledge and skills related to selecting, preparing, and consuming foods in culturally and nutritionally appropriate ways.
• Food matrix effect: The interaction of nutrients and compounds within whole foods that enhances their biological effects beyond isolated components.
• Food reward: The pleasure and satisfaction derived from eating palatable foods, which can influence food intake and contribute to overconsumption.
• Food socialisation: The process by which eating habits, food preferences, and meal practices are learned through family and cultural experiences.
• Form: The proper technique and body positioning used during exercise execution to maximise effectiveness and minimise injury risk.
• Frailty: A clinical syndrome of decreased physical reserve and resistance to stressors, increasing vulnerability to adverse health outcomes.
• Free radicals: Unstable molecules that damage cells and contribute to ageing and disease; neutralised by antioxidants.
• Functional Foods: Foods that provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition. They contain bioactive compounds that may reduce disease risk or promote optimal health.
• Functional overreaching: A planned short-term increase in training stress that leads to improved performance after adequate recovery.

G

• Ghrelin: The “hunger hormone” produced in the stomach that stimulates appetite and increases before meals.
• GIP: Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide, a hormone that regulates insulin secretion and may influence fat storage.
• GLP-1: Glucagon-like peptide-1, a hormone that slows gastric emptying, promotes satiety, and enhances insulin secretion.
• Glucagon: A hormone that raises blood glucose levels by promoting the breakdown of glycogen and fat stores.
• Glucose: A simple sugar that serves as the primary energy source for cells and is tightly regulated by insulin and other hormones.
• Gluten: A protein found in wheat, barley, and rye. Intolerance causes adverse symptoms like bloating, abdominal pain, and fatigue.
• Glycemic control: The management of blood sugar levels to keep them within target ranges, crucial for preventing diabetes complications.
• Glycemic index: A ranking system measuring how quickly carbohydrate-containing foods raise blood sugar levels after consumption.
• Glycemic load: A measure that combines both the glycemic index of a food and the portion size consumed to predict its effect on blood glucose levels.
• Glycogen: The stored form of carbohydrate in muscles and liver that serves as a primary fuel source during exercise.
• Growth hormone: An anabolic hormone that promotes muscle growth, fat metabolism, and tissue repair.
• Gut barrier function: The intestinal lining's ability to selectively allow nutrients through while blocking harmful substances and bacteria.
• Gut dysbiosis: An imbalance in the composition or function of gut microbiota that can contribute to digestive issues, inflammation, and various health problems.
• Gut microbiome: The trillions of bacteria and other microorganisms living in the digestive tract that influence health and disease.

H

• Habit formation: The psychological process of developing automatic behaviours that can support or hinder fat loss efforts.
• HDL cholesterol: High-density lipoprotein, known as "good cholesterol," which removes excess cholesterol from arteries and reduces cardiovascular risk.
• Healthspan: The period of life spent in good health, free from chronic disease and disability, rather than merely lifespan.
• Heme iron: The form of iron found in animal tissues that, while more absorbable, can promote oxidative stress at high levels.
• High-responder: An individual who experiences above-average improvements in response to a training or nutritional intervention.
• HIIT: High-intensity interval training, a workout method alternating short bursts of intense exercise with recovery periods to maximise calorie burn.
• Homeostasis: The body's tendency to maintain stable internal conditions, including a defended body weight range that can resist change.
• HRmax: The maximum heart rate an individual can achieve during all-out exercise effort.
• Hunger: The physiological drive to eat triggered by energy deficit, hormonal signals, and nutrient depletion.
• Hydration status: The level of fluid balance in the body, which affects physical performance, metabolism, and can temporarily influence body weight measurements.
• Hydration: The maintenance of adequate fluid levels in the body to support optimal physiological function and performance.
• Hydrogen ion: A byproduct of anaerobic metabolism that contributes to muscle fatigue and the "burning" sensation during intense exercise.
• Hyperphagia: Excessive hunger and food intake beyond normal physiological needs, often driven by hormonal or psychological factors.
• Hyperplasia: The increase in muscle size through an increase in the number of muscle fibres.
• Hypertension: Persistently elevated blood pressure that increases risk for heart disease, stroke, and kidney disease, often influenced by diet, particularly sodium intake.
• Hypertrophy: The increase in muscle size through an increase in the size of individual muscle fibres.
• Hypothalamus: A brain region that regulates appetite, energy balance, and body weight through integration of hormonal and neural signals.
• Hypoxia: A condition of reduced oxygen availability to tissues, which can occur during high-intensity exercise.

I

• IGF-1: Insulin-like growth factor-1, a hormone that promotes muscle growth and tissue repair.
• Immune function: The body's defence system against pathogens and its role in recovery and adaptation to exercise stress.
• Incomplete protein: A protein source that lacks adequate amounts of one or more essential amino acids.
• Inflammaging: The chronic inflammatory state associated with ageing that accelerates disease development and functional decline.
• Inflammation: The body's natural response to tissue damage or stress, which is part of the adaptation and repair process.
• Inflammatory biomarkers: Measurable substances in blood (like C-reactive protein) that indicate inflammation levels and predict disease risk.
• Insulin resistance: A condition where cells become less responsive to insulin, impairing glucose uptake and utilisation.
• Insulin sensitivity: The degree to which cells respond appropriately to insulin for glucose uptake and utilisation.
• Insulin: A hormone that regulates blood glucose levels and promotes nutrient uptake into cells.
• Intensity: The level of effort or load used during exercise, often expressed as a percentage of maximum capacity.
• Intermittent Energy Restriction: A dietary pattern that alternates between periods of normal eating and calorie restriction to achieve fat loss.
• Intermittent fasting: An eating pattern that cycles between periods of fasting and eating, potentially improving metabolic health and promoting fat loss.
• Iron: Essential mineral for blood production and oxygen transport. Found in two forms: heme iron (from meat, easily absorbed) and non-heme iron (from plants, absorption enhanced by vitamin C). Dark leafy greens and legumes are good plant sources.
• Isoinertial concentration: A type of resistance training where the load remains constant while the acceleration varies throughout the movement.
• Isokinetic contraction: A muscle contraction performed at a constant velocity throughout the entire range of motion.
• Isolation exercise: Single-joint movements that target specific muscle groups with minimal involvement from other muscles.
• Isometric contraction: A muscle contraction where tension is generated without any change in muscle length or joint movement.
• Isotonic contraction: A muscle contraction involving movement where tension remains relatively constant throughout the range of motion.

J

• Joint: The connection between two or more bones that allows for movement and force transmission.
• Junk Food: Highly processed foods that are typically high in calories, sugar, salt, and unhealthy fats while being low in nutritional value.

K

• Kcal: Kilocalories, the standard unit of measurement for energy content in food and energy expenditure by the body.
• Ketogenic diet: A very low-carbohydrate, high-fat diet that shifts metabolism toward using fat and ketones as primary fuel sources.
• Ketones: Molecules produced by the liver from fat breakdown that serve as an alternative fuel source during fasting or carbohydrate restriction.
• Ketosis: A metabolic state where the body primarily uses fat and ketones for energy instead of glucose from carbohydrates.

L

• Lactate: A byproduct of anaerobic metabolism that can contribute to fatigue during high-intensity exercise.
• Lactose intolerance: The inability to digest lactose (milk sugar) due to insufficient lactase enzyme, causing digestive discomfort.
• LDL cholesterol: Low-density lipoprotein, often called "bad cholesterol," which contributes to arterial plaque buildup when elevated or oxidised.
• LDL oxidation: Chemical modification of LDL cholesterol that makes it more likely to form arterial plaques and cause atherosclerosis.
• Lean tissue: Body tissue excluding fat, primarily consisting of muscle, bone, organs, and water.
• Legumes: Plant foods including beans, lentils, chickpeas, and peas that provide protein, fibre, and complex carbohydrates.
• Leptin: A hormone produced by fat cells that signals energy sufficiency to the brain and helps regulate appetite and metabolism.
• Leucine: An essential branched-chain amino acid that plays a key role in stimulating muscle protein synthesis.
• Ligament: Connective tissue that connects bone to bone and provides joint stability.
• Linear progression: A training approach where load, volume, or intensity increases consistently over time in a straight-line fashion.
• Lipid profiles: Blood test results that measure different types of cholesterol and triglycerides to assess cardiovascular disease risk.
• Lipogenesis: The metabolic process of converting excess carbohydrates and other nutrients into fatty acids for storage.
• Lipolysis: The breakdown of stored triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol for use as energy.
• Load: The amount of resistance or weight used during an exercise.
• Longevity: The length of life or lifespan, particularly when referring to dietary and lifestyle factors that may extend healthy years of living.
• Low-glycemic carbohydrates: Carbohydrate sources that cause a gradual, sustained rise in blood glucose rather than rapid spikes, promoting better blood sugar control.
• Low-glycemic index: Carbohydrate-containing foods that rank 55 or below on the glycemic index scale, causing slower and smaller increases in blood glucose.
• Lycopene: A red carotenoid found in tomatoes with antioxidant and potential anti-cancer properties, better absorbed with fats.
• Lysine: An essential amino acid important for protein synthesis and calcium absorption.

M

• Macronutrient ratio: The relative proportion of protein, carbohydrates, and fats in the diet, which can influence satiety, adherence, and body composition outcomes.
• Macronutrient: The three primary nutrients required in large amounts are carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
• Magnesium: Essential mineral for muscle and nerve function, blood sugar regulation, and bone health. Found in nuts, seeds, whole grains, and leafy greens.
• Meal frequency: The number of eating occasions per day, which can affect hunger management and meal satisfaction, but has minimal impact on metabolism.
• Mechanical strain: The deformation of muscle tissue that occurs during resistance exercise and contributes to growth adaptations.
• Mechanical stress: The force applied to muscle tissue during resistance exercise that stimulates adaptive responses.
• Mechanical tension: The force generated by muscle contractions against resistance, a primary stimulus for muscle growth.
• Mediterranean diet: an eating pattern modelled after traditional regional habits of the Mediterranean people. One of the healthiest diets around.
• Melatonin: A hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles and has antioxidant properties that may aid recovery. Also found in food.
• Menopause: The natural cessation of menstruation in women, accompanied by hormonal changes that can impact body composition and fat distribution.
• Mercury: A toxic heavy metal that accumulates in large predatory fish and can cause neurological damage at high exposure levels.
• Metabolic adaptation: The body's reduction in metabolic rate during calorie restriction, which makes continued weight loss progressively harder.
• Metabolic compensation: Physiological and behavioural changes that resist continued fat loss, including reduced energy expenditure and increased hunger.
• Metabolic flexibility: The ability to efficiently switch between burning carbohydrates and fats for energy, depending on availability and demand.
• Metabolic pathways: A Series of chemical reactions in the body that convert food into energy and support cellular functions and health.
• Metabolic rate: The rate at which the body expends energy for all physiological processes, physical activities, and thermogenesis.
• Metabolic scarring: The theoretical long-term metabolic impairment that may result from repeated cycles of dieting and weight regain.
• Metabolic stress: The accumulation of metabolic byproducts during exercise that contributes to muscle growth and adaptation.
• Metabolic syndrome: A cluster of conditions including abdominal obesity, high blood pressure, insulin resistance, and abnormal cholesterol levels that increase disease risk.
• Metabolism: The sum of all chemical processes in the body that convert food into energy and support life-sustaining functions.
• Metabolite: A byproduct of metabolic processes that can accumulate during exercise and influence performance and adaptation.
• Methionine: An essential amino acid that plays important roles in protein synthesis and metabolic processes.
• Microdamage: Microscopic damage to muscle fibres that occurs during resistance exercise and triggers repair and growth responses.
• Micronutrients: Essential vitamins and minerals required in small amounts for proper body function, growth, and disease prevention.
• Microtrauma: Small-scale tissue damage that occurs during intense exercise and stimulates adaptive responses.
• Mindful eating: Paying full attention to the eating experience—tastes, textures, hunger, and fullness cues—without distraction or judgment.
• Mitochondria: Cellular organelles responsible for producing energy (ATP) through aerobic metabolism.
• MNR: Muscle protein net balance, the difference between muscle protein synthesis and muscle protein breakdown.
• Moderate-intensity activity: Physical activity that raises heart rate and breathing (like brisk walking) but still allows conversation during exercise.
• Monounsaturated fat: A type of dietary fat with one double bond that is associated with improved health outcomes and typically liquid at room temperature.
• Motor learning: The process of acquiring and refining movement skills through practice and experience.
• Motor pattern: The coordinated sequence of muscle activations required to perform a specific movement.
• Motor unit activation: The process of recruiting and firing motor units to generate muscle force.
• Motor unit recruitment: The sequential activation of motor units from smallest to largest to produce increasing levels of force.
• Motor unit: A motor neuron and all the muscle fibres it innervates, which contract as a single functional unit.
• Movement competency: The ability to perform fundamental movement patterns with proper technique and control.
• mTOR pathway: A cellular signalling pathway that regulates muscle protein synthesis and growth in response to various stimuli.
• Muscle group: A collection of muscles that work together to produce specific movements or functions.
• Muscle protein breakdown: The process of breaking down muscle proteins into amino acids, balanced against synthesis for net muscle growth.
• Muscle protein synthesis: The process of building new muscle proteins from amino acids, essential for muscle growth and repair.
• Myofibrillar hypertrophy: Muscle growth resulting from an increase in the size and number of contractile proteins (myofibrils).
• Myoglobin: A protein in muscle cells that stores and transports oxygen for aerobic energy production.

N

• NEAT: Non-exercise activity thermogenesis, the energy expended for all activities outside of sleeping, eating, or formal exercise.
• Negatives: Training emphasis on the eccentric (lowering) portion of an exercise movement, often using heavier loads.
• Neurological function: The proper functioning of the nervous system in controlling movement, coordination, and muscle activation.
• Neuromuscular system: The combined function of the nervous system and muscular system in producing coordinated movement.
• Neuroprotective: Substances or practices that protect nerve cells from damage, degeneration, or death in the brain and nervous system.
• Neurotransmitter: Chemical messengers in the brain that influence mood, appetite, motivation, and eating behaviour.
• Niacin (Vitamin B3): A B-vitamin essential for energy metabolism and DNA repair. Abundant in poultry, fish, nuts, and whole grains. Deficiency is rare in varied diets.
• Nitrogen balance: The relationship between nitrogen intake from protein and nitrogen excretion, indicating protein status.
• Non-functional overreaching: Excessive training stress that impairs performance for weeks to months without adaptive benefit.
• Non-nutritive sweeteners: Artificial or natural sweeteners that provide sweetness with minimal or zero calories.
• Non-REM sleep: The deeper stages of sleep are important for physical recovery, health, how you look, and memory consolidation.
• Non-responder: An individual who experiences minimal or no improvement in response to a training or nutritional intervention.
• Nonessential amino acids: Amino acids that can be synthesised by the body and are not required to be consumed in the diet.
• Noradrenaline: A hormone and neurotransmitter that increases metabolic rate, mobilises fat stores, and enhances alertness and energy expenditure.
• Nordic diet: Eating a healthy, sustainable, locally sourced Scandinavian diet of foods like whole grains, berries, root vegetables, fatty fish, and rapeseed oil.
• NOVA classification: A food classification system that categorises foods by their degree of processing, from unprocessed to ultra-processed.
• Nutrient density: The concentration of vitamins, minerals, and beneficial compounds relative to the calorie content of a food.

O

• Obesogenic environment: Physical and social surroundings that promote excessive food intake and sedentary behaviour, making weight gain more likely.
• Oleocanthal: A polyphenol in olive oil with anti-inflammatory effects similar to ibuprofen, creating a peppery throat sensation.
• Omega-3 fatty acids: Essential polyunsaturated fats (EPA and DHA) found in fatty fish that reduce inflammation and support cardiovascular and brain health.
• One-rep max: The maximum amount of weight that can be lifted for one complete repetition of an exercise.
• Orexigenic: Substances or signals that stimulate appetite and increase food intake.
• Organosulfur compounds: Sulphur-containing plant chemicals found in garlic and onions with antimicrobial and cardiovascular benefits.
• Orthorexia nervosa: An unhealthy obsession with eating only "pure" or "healthy" foods that can lead to nutritional deficiencies, social isolation, and psychological distress.
• Overload: The fundamental training principle of progressively increasing demands on the body to stimulate adaptation.
• Overreaching: A planned short-term increase in training stress that may temporarily reduce performance but leads to supercompensation.
• Overtraining: A state of chronic fatigue and decreased performance resulting from excessive training without adequate recovery.
• Oxidative stress: Damage to cells caused by an imbalance between harmful free radicals and the body's antioxidant defences.

P

• PAL: Physical activity level, a factor used to estimate total daily energy expenditure based on activity patterns.
• Parasympathetic nervous system: The "rest and digest" branch of the nervous system that reduces stress and supports digestion.
• Percent body fat: The proportion of total body weight that consists of fat tissue, typically expressed as a percentage.
• Periodisation: The systematic planning and organisation of training variables over time to optimise performance and adaptation.
• Phosphorus: Mineral essential for bone health, energy production, and DNA synthesis. Found in protein-rich foods like poultry, fish, dairy, and legumes.
• Physical activity: Any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that expends energy, including both structured exercise and daily activities.
• Phytochemicals or Phytonutrents: Bioactive plant compounds with protective health effects, including polyphenols, carotenoids, and glucosinolates, that aren't classified as essential nutrients.
• Plant proteins: Proteins derived from plant sources like legumes, nuts, and grains rather than animal products.
• Plant stanols/sterols: Naturally occurring compounds in plants that are structurally similar to cholesterol and can help lower blood cholesterol levels when consumed regularly.
• Pmax: The maximum power output an individual can generate during short-duration, high-intensity exercise.
• Polyphenols: Plant compounds in olive oil and other foods with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that protect against disease.
• Polyunsaturated fat: A type of dietary fat with multiple double bonds that includes essential fatty acids necessary for health.
• Portion control: The practice of managing and regulating serving sizes to control calorie intake and support fat loss goals.
• Postabsorptive: The metabolic state several hours after eating, when nutrient absorption is complete, and the body relies on stored energy.
• Postprandial: The period immediately following a meal when nutrients are being digested, absorbed, and metabolised.
• Posture: The alignment and positioning of body segments that affect movement quality and injury risk.
• Prebiotics: The ability of certain foods to feed beneficial gut bacteria, promoting their growth and activity.
• Preloading: The strategy of consuming a low-calorie, high-satiety food or beverage before a meal to reduce overall calorie intake.
• Pro-resolving mediators: Specialised molecules produced from omega-3 fats that actively resolve inflammation rather than simply suppressing it.
• Probiotics: Live beneficial bacteria in fermented foods like yoghurt that support gut health, immune function, and metabolism.
• Processed meats: Meats preserved by smoking, curing, salting, or adding preservatives, including bacon, sausages, and deli meats.
• Progesterone: A sex hormone that influences appetite, water retention, and metabolism, particularly during the menstrual cycle.
• Progressive overload: The gradual increase in exercise stress over time to continually challenge the body and promote adaptations.
• Prospective cohort study: A research design that follows groups of people over time to observe how exposures affect health outcomes.
• Protein complementation: The practice of combining different protein sources to create a complete amino acid profile.
• Protein leverage hypothesis: The theory that the body's strong drive to obtain adequate protein influences overall food intake, potentially leading to overconsumption when protein density is low.
• Protein quality: A measure of how well a protein source provides essential amino acids in the right proportions for human needs.
• Psychological function: Mental and emotional processes that affect anxiety, motivation, focus, stress management, and exercise adherence.
• Psychological stress: Mental or emotional pressure that can impact physical performance, well-being, recovery, and adaptation to training.
• PYY: Peptide YY, a hormone released after eating that promotes satiety and reduces appetite.

Q

• Quercetin: Flavonoid antioxidant with anti-inflammatory properties found in onions, capers, apples, and berries. May support heart health and reduce allergy symptoms.

R

• Recurrence: The return of cancer after a period of remission or following apparently successful treatment.
• Red meat: Meat from mammals, including beef, pork, lamb, and veal, characterised by higher myoglobin content.
• Refeeding: Planned periods of increased calorie intake during a diet to temporarily restore hormone levels and provide psychological relief.
• Refined grains: Grains processed to remove bran and germ, leaving only the starchy endosperm and eliminating most nutrients and fibre.
• REM sleep: Rapid eye movement sleep, important for cognitive function, memory processing, and mental recovery.
• Reps: Repetitions, the number of times an exercise movement is performed consecutively within a set.
• Resistance exercise: Physical activity that involves working against external resistance to build strength, preserve muscle mass, and support metabolism.
• Resistant starch: Starch that resists digestion in the small intestine, reaching the colon where it ferments to produce beneficial compounds.
• RIR: Reps in reserve, a method of quantifying training intensity based on how many additional repetitions could be performed.
• RMR: Resting metabolic rate, the energy expended while at rest but not in a completely fasted state.
• ROM: Range of motion, the extent of movement possible at a joint in various directions.
• RPE: Rate of perceived exertion, a subjective scale used to quantify exercise intensity based on how hard an effort feels.

S

• Sarcopenia: The age-related loss of muscle mass and strength that begins in middle age and accelerates with ageing.
• Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy: Muscle growth resulting from an increase in the fluid and non-contractile components within muscle fibres.
• Satiety hormones: Chemical messengers like leptin and peptide YY that signal fullness to the brain after eating.
• Satiety: The feeling of fullness and satisfaction after eating that signals the body to stop consuming food.
• Saturated fat: A type of dietary fat with no double bonds that is typically solid at room temperature and found in animal products.
• Saturated fats: Fats primarily from animal sources and tropical oils that raise LDL cholesterol and increase cardiovascular disease risk.
• Scienciness: The superficial appearance of being scientific without rigorous methodology, often used to market diet products or programs.
• Selenium: Essential trace mineral with antioxidant properties, important for thyroid function and immune health. Abundant in fish, poultry, eggs, and Brazil nuts.
• Sensory-specific satiety: The phenomenon where complex, varied flavours maintain satisfaction while bland foods quickly lose appeal during eating.
• Set point theory: The concept that the body has a genetically predetermined weight range that it actively defends through metabolic and appetite adjustments.
• Sets: A group of repetitions performed consecutively before taking a rest period.
• Short-chain fatty acids: Small fat molecules (like butyrate) produced by gut bacteria from fibre fermentation that reduce inflammation and support health.
• Size principle: The orderly recruitment of motor units from smallest to largest as force requirements increase.
• Skinfold measurement: A method of estimating body fat percentage by measuring the thickness of subcutaneous fat at specific body sites.
• Sleep cycle: The recurring pattern of sleep stages that typically lasts 90-120 minutes and repeats throughout the night.
• Sleep duration: The total amount of time spent sleeping, typically recommended to be 7-9 hours per night for adults.
• Sleep efficiency: The percentage of time spent actually sleeping while in bed, with higher percentages indicating better sleep quality.
• Sleep fragmentation: Frequent interruptions or awakenings during sleep that reduce sleep quality, affect your health and recovery.
• Sleep latency: The amount of time it takes to fall asleep after getting into bed and attempting to sleep.
• Sleep quality: A subjective measure of how restful and restorative sleep feels, affecting recovery, health and performance.
• Soluble fibre: A type of dietary fibre that dissolves in water to form a gel-like substance, helping to lower cholesterol and regulate blood sugar levels.
• Static stretch: Stretching exercises where a position is held for an extended period to improve flexibility.
• Stress eating: The consumption of food, often highly palatable comfort foods, as a coping mechanism in response to psychological stress or negative emotions.
• Subcutaneous fat: Fat stored directly beneath the skin, which is less metabolically harmful than visceral fat but comprises the majority of body fat.
• Superset: A time-cutting training technique that involves performing two exercises consecutively with minimal rest between them.
• Supraphysiological: Doses or levels that exceed what would normally be found in the body under natural conditions.
• Sympathetic nervous system: The part of the autonomic nervous system that activates the "fight or flight" response during stress or exercise.
• Synergistic effects: When two interventions are combined produce greater benefits than the sum of their individual effects when used separately.

T

• Tachyphylaxis: The rapid decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure, such as adaptation to training or supplements.
• Taper: A planned reduction in training volume while maintaining intensity to peak for competition or assessment.
• TDEE: Total daily energy expenditure, the sum of all calories burned through basal metabolism, activity, exercise, and food digestion.
• TEF: Thermic effect of food, the increase in energy expenditure following food consumption for digestion, absorption, and nutrient processing.
• Tendon: Connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone and transmits force from muscle contractions to create movement.
• Testosterone: The primary male sex hormone that promotes muscle growth, strength development, and recovery. Decreases as you age.
• Thermic effect of exercise: The energy expended during physical activity itself, including both the immediate exercise session and any elevated metabolism during recovery.
• Thermogenesis: The production of heat in the body through metabolic processes, contributing to total energy expenditure.
• Thyroid Hormone: Hormones produced by the thyroid gland that regulate metabolic rate, energy expenditure, and body weight.
• Time under tension: The total duration a muscle remains under mechanical stress during a set or exercise.
• Time-restricted eating: An eating pattern that limits food consumption to a specific window of hours each day, with extended overnight fasting.
• TMAO (trimethylamine N-oxide): A compound produced by gut bacteria from certain dietary components that has been associated with increased cardiovascular disease risk in some studies.
• Tracking: The systematic monitoring and recording of food intake, body weight, measurements, or other metrics to assess progress and maintain accountability during fat loss.
• Training age: The number of years an individual has been consistently engaged in structured resistance training.
• Trans fat: Artificial fats created through hydrogenation that increase disease risk and should be minimised in the diet.
• Triglycerides: A type of fat in the blood; high levels increase cardiovascular disease risk and often indicate metabolic dysfunction.
• Tryptophan: An essential amino acid that serves as a precursor to serotonin and melatonin, affecting mood and sleep.
• Type 2 diabetes: A metabolic disorder characterised by high blood sugar due to insulin resistance and inadequate insulin production.
• Type I Fibre: Slow-twitch muscle fibres that are fatigue-resistant and primarily use aerobic metabolism for energy production.
• Type II Fibre: Fast-twitch muscle fibres that generate high force quickly but fatigue rapidly, primarily using anaerobic metabolism.

U

• Ultra-processed foods: Industrially manufactured products containing ingredients not used in home cooking, like emulsifiers, preservatives, and artificial colours.
• Ultrasound: A non-invasive imaging technique that can measure muscle thickness and monitor changes in muscle architecture.
• Undulating progression: A training approach where variables like load and volume are varied in a wave-like pattern over time.
• Unilateral exercise: Movements that involve one limb working independently, such as single-arm rows or lunges.
• UPFs: Ultra-processed foods, industrially manufactured products with multiple ingredients and additives that are associated with overconsumption and poor health outcomes. Best avoided.

V

• Very low-calorie diet (VLCD): A medically supervised diet providing 800 calories or fewer per day, typically used for rapid weight loss in severe obesity under professional guidance.
• Visceral fat: Fat stored around internal organs in the abdominal cavity, associated with increased health risks when excessive.
• Vitamin A: A fat-soluble vitamin essential for vision, immune function, and skin health. Found as retinol in animal products and as beta-carotene (converted to vitamin A) in orange and dark green vegetables.
• Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin): A B-vitamin essential for nerve function and red blood cell formation. Found naturally only in animal products (meat, fish, eggs, dairy). Vegetarians should ensure adequate intake through fortified foods or supplements.
• Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine): A B-vitamin important for protein metabolism, cognitive development, and immune function. Found in poultry, fish, potatoes, and chickpeas.
• Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid): Water-soluble vitamin and antioxidant essential for immunity, collagen production, and iron absorption. Found in citrus, peppers, tomatoes, and leafy greens. Heat-sensitive and best preserved in raw or lightly cooked foods.
• Vitamin E: A fat-soluble antioxidant vitamin that protects cells from oxidative damage. Found in nuts, seeds, and olive oil. Absorption requires dietary fat.
• Vitamin K: A fat-soluble vitamin essential for blood clotting and bone health. Abundant in leafy greens, especially kale, spinach, and parsley. One serving of many green vegetables provides several times the daily requirement.
• Vmax: The maximum velocity at which a muscle can contract or a movement can be performed.
• VO2max: The maximum rate at which the body can consume oxygen during exercise, indicating aerobic fitness capacity.
• Volume: The total amount of work performed, typically calculated as sets × reps × load.
• Voluntary failure: The point during exercise where no additional repetitions can be completed despite maximal effort.

W

• Waist circumference: A measurement around the abdomen that indicates abdominal fat accumulation and serves as a simple health risk indicator.
• Warm up: Light activities performed before exercise to prepare the body for more intense physical activity.
• Water retention: Temporary fluid accumulation in body tissues that can mask fat loss on the scale and is influenced by sodium, carbohydrates, hormones, and inflammation.
• Weight cycling: Repeated cycles of weight loss and regain, also known as yo-yo dieting, which may have negative metabolic and psychological consequences.
• Whey protein: A fast-digesting dairy protein that rapidly elevates blood amino acid levels and stimulates muscle protein synthesis.
• White adipose tissue: The primary type of fat tissue that stores energy and releases hormones affecting appetite and metabolism.
• Whole foods: Foods that are unprocessed or minimally processed, consumed in their natural state or close to it, retaining their original nutrients and fibre.
• Whole grains: Grains containing all three parts—bran, germ, and endosperm—preserve fibre, vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals lost in refining.
• Working set: The main training sets performed at the prescribed intensity, excluding warm-up sets.
• Workload: The total training demand placed on the body, encompassing volume, intensity, and frequency of exercise.

Y

• Yo-yo dieting: Repeated cycles of weight loss and regain that may negatively impact metabolism, body composition, and psychological well-being.

Z

• Zinc: Essential mineral important for immune function, wound healing, and protein synthesis. Found in meat, shellfish, legumes, nuts, and whole grains.